acorn woodpecker behavior

After they’ve been stored for a while, the fit becomes looser as the acorn dries out—group members periodically check their stored acorns and move the loose ones to smaller holes. "); Acorn Woodpecker: Medium-sized, clown-faced woodpecker with red crown, white forehead and glossy black face and body. Acorn woodpeckers store thousands of acorns, each in its own little niche carved into the surface of the trunk of their “granary” tree. A lot of its behavior may even seem completely at odds with what you know about “typical” woodpecker behavior. Black woodpecker males engage in a ritual called 'threat courtship,' where the birds will threaten each other with calls before flying to a base of tree and attempting to drive each other upward. Each year they reuse old holes and add some new ones. The acorn woodpecker has an especially fascinating—and labor-intensive—strategy. Marie Read Acorn Woodpeckers store their food in holes drilled in trees. For most of this time, I lived and worked at Hastings Natural History Reservation in upper Carmel Valley, California, where I still conduct long term research on the social behavior and ecology of acorn woodpeckers and patterns of acorn production in California … Let’s take a look at the fascinating life history of these colorful, charismatic birds. //"); A. and A. S. Love. In addition to excavating nests and foraging, Acorn woodpeckers in the southwest also make holes to store various kinds of nuts in. (2014). Prefers pine-oak woodlands and tropical hardwood forests, as long as oaks are available nearby. The breast is white with black streaking; belly and rump are white. Explore Birds of the World to learn more. It's a medium-sized bird, bigger than a Downy Woodpecker and a bit smaller than its close, but more easterly, relative the Red-headed Woodpecker. The sophisticated social behavior was also seen in the fact that the battles attracted large crowds of up to 30 birds, some traveling as far as three kilometers. The cavity is usually about 6 inches in diameter, and it may be 8 inches to more than 2 feet deep. The Acorn Woodpecker is a woodpecker that has its habitat near and it oak forests. Mate-sharing, group sex, infanticide, and acorn storing on a monumental scale—it’s all in a day’s work for these clown-faced denizens of the West. Female is similar except for a black patch between the white forehead and red crown. Such a "granary tree" may be used for generations and may be riddled with up to 50,000 holes. The front part of the head consisting of the bill, eyes, cheeks and chin. A clown-faced western woodpecker with a complicated social structure, living in small colonies. The granaries are valuable mating sites, housing multiple male and female breeders and their offspring. Field studies have shown that breeding groups range from monogamous pairs to breeding collectives, sometimes called "coalitions". However, Acorn Woodpeckers have also shown the ability to colonize new habitats such as suburban neighborhoods, using human-made structures for roosting and acorn storage.Back to top. Acorns are such an important resource to the California populations of Acorn woodpeckers that they may nest in the fall to take advantage of the fall acorn crop which is a rare behavior in birds. The male has a red crown, white forehead and glossy black face and body. Koenig, Walter D., Peter B. Stacey, Mark T. Stanback and Ronald L. Mumme. Woodpeckers put 220 kg (485 lb) of acorns … The granaries are valuable mating sites, housing multiple male and female breeders, and their non-breeding offspring. Female is similar except for a black patch between the white forehead and red crown. Acorns are such an important resource to the California populations that acorn woodpeckers may nest in the fall to take advantage of the fall acorn crop, a rare behavior in birds. Though found as low as sea level, they are more common in mountains, ranging up to the elevation limit of oak trees. Partners in Flight estimates the global breeding population at 5 million, with 30 percent living in the U.S. and 57 percent in Mexico. Juvenile is similar in color but has a dark eye. Acorn Woodpecker (Melanerpes formicivorus), version 2.0. The ultimate example of cooperative bird behavior may be the acorn woodpecker. The woodpeckers were fighting for control over "granaries" -- large acorn storage structures consisting of acorns stuffed into thousands of individual holes in the bark. As indicated by its name, this fascinating creature prefers to munch on the acorns it tucks away in cavities in dead wood, but in some cases, the bird will also feed on insects, sap, nuts, and fruit. Acorn woodpeckers exhibit some of the most bizarre social behavior on earth. Around half of this Woodpecker’s diet consists of acorns. They also live in other habitats with oaks present or nearby, including streamside forests, Douglas-fir forests, redwood forests, tropical hardwood forests, suburban areas, and urban parks. A Acorn woodpeckers can also be seen sallying from tree limbs to catch insects, eating fruit and seeds, and drilling holes to drink sap. Two (2) field assistants are needed for ongoing long-term studies of the behavioral ecology of the cooperatively breeding Acorn Woodpecker at the Hastings Reserve in upper Carmel Valley, California. US Department of Interior, Washington, DC, USA. Wings are black with white patches. Despite their association with acorns, Acorn Woodpeckers prefer to catch flying insects when those are available. Acorn Woodpecker. Behavior. One of the strangest traits of the acorn woodpecker, however, is its collective behavior—in both food storage and childrearing. Partners in Flight (2017). The acorn woodpecker displays some of the most interesting and complex feeding and social behavior among birds. in: Koenig D. Dickinson J.L. The woodpeckers were fighting for control over "granaries" -- large acorn storage structures consisting of acorns stuffed into thousands of individual holes in the bark. //]]> "https://secure." Acorn Woodpeckers An unusual bird of California. (2019). A group of Acorn Woodpeckers is known as a "bushel" — a perfect description for this bird's unusual habit of squirreling away large quantities of acorns in granaries or "acorn trees." Acorn Woodpecker: White-headed Woodpecker lacks white rump, has a white face and head, and a black belly. With the exception of a few migratory populations, the Acorn Woodpecker is a year-round resident. In the fall, they store acorns or other nuts in these holes to provide food for the winter. Besides nuts and insects, they also eat fruit, sap, oak catkins, and flower nectar, along with occasional grass seeds, lizards, and even eggs of … Even their approach to cooperative breeding is unusually complex. Analysis of foraging behavior of woodpecker groups at these two sites using identical methods may help to unravel The same tree, called a “granary”, is reused over generations to store the winter food supply. The cooperative behavior of this species has made it the focus of numerous studies of behavior and ecology, especially in California (Koenig et al. : "http://www. This woodpecker species’ cooperative behavior is probably due to the bird’s limited territories. This delightful video shows how acorn woodpeckers work together on a granary tree. The acorn woodpecker drills into trees to create storage holes. Female is similar except for a black patch between the white forehead and red crown. Acorn woodpeckers can also be seen sallying from tree limbs to catch insects, eating fruit and seeds, and drilling holes to drink sap. A group’s granary comprises the trees in which they've hidden their acorns, located in holes created by the birds' sharp beaks. Acorn woodpecker granary. In the Southwest and parts of Mexico, overgrazing has damaged mountain pine-oak habitats and streamside forests, probably reducing the Acorn Woodpecker population substantially. Evolution of cooperative behavior is a matter of game theory and has been encapsulated in a 1987 BBC documentary called “Nice Guys Finish First” by … North American Bird Conservation Initiative. 1995). They will also wedge nuts between or beneath roof shakes and … Occasionally the woodpecker will put acorns into places where it cannot get them out. Woodpeckers put 220 kg (485 lb) of acorns … Wedging acorns between or beneath roof shakes filling unscreened rooftop plumbing vents with acorns are also common activities. var sc_project=965006; Their breeding behavior is equally complicated, with multiple males and females combining efforts to raise young in a single nest. But when these woodpecker deterrents were put through controlled scientific testing, their ability to get rid of woodpeckers was profoundly disappointing in all but one case 8 Craven, Scott and Drake, David., Woodpecker Ecology & Damage Management G3997-008, University of Wisconsin-Extension, Cooperative Extension, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture and Wisconsin Occasionally eats grass seeds, lizards, and bird eggs. This article focuses on family commonalities, then concentrates on acorn woodpecker behavior patterns. 415-453 in Cooperative Breeding in Birds: Long-term Studies of Ecology and Behavior … A group member is always on alert to guard the hoard from thieves, while others race through the trees giving parrotlike waka-waka calls. Coalitions of adult acorn woodpeckers nest together, localizing to storage granaries. How did the cooperative behavior evolve? They live in family groups of up to a dozen or more individuals and drill small holes in dead snags, utility poles, or sides of buildings. The woodpeckers reuse nest holes for many years. Avian Conservation Assessment Database. Cooperative breeding occurs in two ways: coalitions and family groups. The value of the granary tree and the likelihood of failure as a dispersing bird seeks to find and establish a new granary are probably the primary pressures leading to social behavior in the acorn woodpecker. (Acorns as well as almonds, walnuts, hazelnuts, pecans, and pinyon pine nuts.) Yellow-tipped throat feathers may be present. The acorns are wedged so tightly in their holes that they’re very difficult for other animals to remove. Acorn Woodpecker. Acorn Woodpeckers excavate multiple cavities, any one of which may be used for nesting (the rest are used for nocturnal roosting). Acorn woodpeckers store thousands of acorns, each in its own little niche carved into the surface of the trunk of their “granary” tree. var pageTracker = _gat._getTracker("UA-129491-1"); There each egg is gradually eaten by several individuals—often including the female who laid it. Mate-sharing, group sex, infanticide, and acorn storing on a monumental scale—it’s all in a day’s work for these clown-faced denizens of the West. They may hunt insects at any time of year, often storing them in cracks or crevices. The male has a red crown, white forehead and glossy black face and body. Yellow-tipped throat feathers may be present. But the woodpeckers don’t cooperate just at nesting. People have had some success with hanging strips of shiny ribbon from the eaves or putting balloons in front of the siding to scare the birds away; the surest fix is to switch to an impenetrable siding material. scJsHost+ Acorn woodpeckers first arrived at the sanctuary in 1968 and have been under observation since 1974. Acorn Woodpecker Behavior Acorn Woodpecker Food. The crown is the top part of the birds head. The State of the Birds 2014 Report. The woodpeckers harvest acorns directly from oak trees and are famous for their habit of storing nuts—primarily acorns, but also almonds, walnuts, hazelnuts, pecans, and pinyon pine nuts—in individually drilled holes in one or more storage trees. The Cornell Lab will send you updates about birds, birding, and opportunities to help bird conservation. Evolutionarily speaking, power struggles are an instinctual behavior meant to maintain the Acorn Woodpeckers’ genetic diversity … Woodpeckers, flickers, and sapsuckers inhabit areas with multiple oak tree varieties because each type produces a … In western oak woods, these gaudy birds live in colonies of a dozen or more. The other half of the diet includes insects, nuts, fruits, seeds, and the occasional egg from another bird. They occasionally wander outside the territory in pursuit of acorns and water. A Bushel of Birds in: Koenig D. Dickinson J.L. The Acorn Woodpecker will use human-made structures to store acorns, drilling holes in fence posts, utility poles, buildings, and even automobile radiators. Back to top, Acorn Woodpeckers eat acorns and insects (and other arthropods). The value of the granary tree and the likelihood that a dispersing bird will fail as it seeks to find and establish a new granary are probably the primary pressures leading to social behavior in the acorn woodpecker. Dozens of birds, grouped in coalitions, can fight for days on end, while … Eyes are white. Throughout the year, Acorn Woodpeckers collect acorns and wedge them tightly into holes they’ve made in tree bark. Behavior. "); Woodpeckers, flickers, and sapsuckers inhabit areas with multiple oak tree varieties because each type produces a different amount of nuts per year. Besides converting many kinds of live and dead trees into granaries, Acorn Woodpeckers often store acorns in structures like utility poles, fenceposts, and wood-sided buildings—a practice that has brought them into conflict with more than a few protective homeowners. Pp. Some groups have multiple breeding males and females, and all of a group’s breeding females lay their eggs in a single nest. Acorn woodpeckers live in tight social networks and know everyone's place because of their frequent travels to other territories. Wings are black with white patches. When you think of woodpecker behavior, chances are you picture a woodpecker drilling into a tree to access larvae or other invertebrates. Flight muscles are located between the belly and the breast. Alfred A. Knopf, New York, NY, USA. 1995). Lutmerding, J. var sc_invisible=0; This article focuses on family commonalities, then concentrates on acorn woodpecker behavior patterns. USGS Patuxtent Wildlife Research Center (2014b). Acorn Woodpeckers (Melanerpes formicivorus) are quite distinctive from other woodpecker species: They are communal. This woodpecker species’ cooperative behavior is probably due to the bird’s limited territories. A family unit uses one tree to drill with thousands of holes, which they then fill with acorns. 415-453 in Cooperative Breeding in Birds: Long-term Studies of Ecology and Behavior (P. B. Stacey and W. D. Koenig, editors). Get Instant ID help for 650+ North American birds. Acorn Woodpeckers are such unusual birds with such complicated social behavior that they have given rise to one of the longest-running behavioral studies of birds. Acorn Woodpeckers may visit seed and suet feeders near oak woodlands within their range. Acorn Woodpeckers do not build a nest within the cavity, but during the digging process a layer of fresh wood chips usually accumulates on the bottom. The ultimate example of cooperative bird behavior may be the acorn woodpecker. Acorn Woodpeckers An unusual bird of California. Most foraging is performed in or near the canopy; rarely goes to the ground except to pick up grit and fallen acorns. Woodpeckers are a highly aggressive species and courtship often triggers territorial behavior between other males and between potential mates. Sauer, J. R., J. E. Hines, J. E. Fallon, K. L. Pardieck, Jr. Ziolkowski, D. J. and W. A. Unlock thousands of full-length species accounts and hundreds of bird family overviews when you subscribe to Birds of the World. Acorn Woodpecker: Medium-sized, clown-faced woodpecker. Acorn Woodpeckers live year-round in oak and pine-oak woodlands of western Oregon, California, and the Southwest through Mexico and Central America. Available from http://www.mbr-pwrc.usgs.gov/bbs/. Best known for its habit of hoarding acorns: the birds drill small holes in a dead snag, then harvest acorns in fall and store them in these holes, to be eaten during winter. Female is similar except for a black patch between the white forehead and red crown. var sc_security="340ce72a"; They have thickened skulls and powerful neck muscles that enable them to … The breast is white with black streaking, belly and rump are white. Reminiscent of a troupe of wide-eyed clowns, Acorn Woodpeckers live in large groups in western oak woodlands. The granaries are valuable mating sites, housing multiple male and female breeders, and their non-breeding offspring. Each species account is written by leading ornithologists and provides detailed information on bird distribution, migration, habitat, diet, sounds, behavior, breeding, current population status, and conservation. The granaries are valuable mating sites, housing multiple male and female breeders and their offspring. (1995). The Acorn Woodpecker will use human-made structures to store acorns, drilling holes in fence posts, utility poles, buildings, and even automobile radiators. Biologists are working on answers for this curious question. Acorn Woodpeckers have a complicated social structure. Acorn woodpeckers: helping at the nest, polygynandry and dependence on a variable acorn crop. The ventral part of the bird, or the area between the flanks on each side and the crissum and breast. Acorn Woodpeckers are known for being cooperative, if not slightly odd, birds. Eyes are white. pageTracker._trackPageview(); The best bird guide and bird watching search engine to identify Version 1019 Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, Bird Banding Laboratory 2019. In the spring they gather in groups to suck sap from small, shallow holes in tree bark, often using the same sets of sap holes for several years.Back to top. The Acorn Woodpecker (Melanerpes formicivorus) - also known as Narrow-fronted Woodpecker - is quite a busy, social bird, living year-round in communal family groups of as many as 15 birds.These groups are known as “bushels” of woodpeckers and are comprised of siblings, their cousins, and their parents. Longevity records of North American birds. The birds drill the holes primarily in the winter, in the thick bark of dead limbs where the drilling does no harm to a living tree. var gaJsHost = (("https:" == document.location.protocol) ? Link. Birds that help at nests but don’t get to breed often go out looking for breeding vacancies in other groups, up to about 10 miles away.Back to top, Acorn Woodpeckers are numerous and their populations have been stable since 1966, according to the North American Breeding Bird Survey. Woodpecker Biology and Behavior: Biology | Drumming | Diet | Roosting and Nesting | Foraging Biology Contrary to popular opinion, woodpeckers do not get headaches from banging on trees. Here's more about keeping away woodpeckers. Each female destroys any eggs that are present before she begins laying, resulting in the demise of more than one-third of the total eggs laid in joint nests. var sc_https=1; Once all the females have started laying their own eggs, their destructive behavior stops and they remove the debris to a nearby tree. These are known as granaries and can have upwards of 50,000 nuts stored in them. In The Birds of North America (P. G. Rodewald, editor). These birds are not migratory and will stay in their area unless they need to move and find food. Power struggles are messy affairs, even in the world of acorn woodpeckers. Yellow-tipped throat feathers may be present. They also defend 15-acre territories around the granary. Acorn woodpeckers exhibit some of the most bizarre social behavior on earth. The study sheds more light on a species that exhibits complex social networks and behavior. Cooperative Breeding in Vertebrates: Studies of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, W. Cambridge University Press , Cambridge 2016 : 217-236 Usually nests in colonies with all members sharing in excavation of holes, mostly in dead oak branches. With their sharp, powerful beaks, Acorn Woodpeckers excavate custom holes into trees that are the perfect size to hold an unusual food—acorns. Melanerpes formicivorus. Acorn woodpeckers: Group living and food storage under contrasting ecological conditions. The woodpeckers were fighting for control over "granaries" -- large acorn storage structures consisting of acorns stuffed into thousands of individual holes in the bark. Acorn Woodpecker: Medium-sized, clown-faced woodpecker with red crown, white forehead and glossy black face and body. Eyes are white. The breast is white with black streaking, belly and rump are white. This bird relies on the storing of acorns to have a stable food supply all year round. In addition to the characteristics used to identify the Acorn Woodpecker, here are some fascinating facts about woodpecker behavior, anatomy, and feeding habits that are shared by all of the woodpecker species found at Edgewood. These acorns are stored in large communities holes dug in trees and other objects. They may nest in the fall to take advantage of the acorn season, a rare behavior for birds. We examine the movement of acorns from valley oak (Quercus lobata) trees to granaries maintained by acorn woodpeckers (Melanerpes formicivorus) in two California oak savanna-woodlands differing in the distribution of Q. lobata within each site. The eye-catching Acorn Woodpecker's head is boldly patterned in black, white, and red, punctuated with wild-looking white eyes that give it a clownish look. Other threats include having nest holes taken over by European Starlings, an aggressive introduced species. The North American Breeding Bird Survey, results and analysis 1966-2013 (Version 1.30.15). var scJsHost = (("https:" == document.location.protocol) ? Wings are black with white patches. The area between the uppertail coverts and the back of the bird. Landscape characteristics and social behavior can affect the foraging patterns of seed-dependent animals. Chickadees aren’t alone in this bird behavior. In western oak woods, these gaudy birds live in colonies of a dozen or more. Eyes are white. In parts of their range Acorn woodpeckers do not construct a "granary tree", but instead store acorns in natural holes and cracks in the bark. Acorn woodpeckers: Group living and food storage under contrasting ecological conditions. Acorns are such an important resource to the California populations that acorn woodpeckers may nest in the fall to take advantage of the fall acorn crop, a rare behavior in birds. If Acorn Woodpeckers have discovered your wood siding and begun making holes in it, they can be very difficult to get rid of. Acorn Woodpeckers fiercely defend these acorn granaries against other groups and any other species that might rob the stores. Their social lives are endlessly fascinating: they store thousands of acorns each year by jamming them into specially made holes in trees. Woodpeckers are an indicator species for healthy oak woodlands. Incubation ranges from 11 to 14 days and is carried out by both parents. The birds are common in the oak woodlands of western North America. Acorn Woodpeckers (Melanerpes formicivorus) are quite distinctive from other woodpecker species: They are communal. Besides nuts and insects, Acorn Woodpeckers also eat fruit, sap, oak catkins, and flower nectar, along with occasional grass seeds, lizards, and even eggs of their own species. behavior of acorn woodpeckers is similar at the two sites, but methodological differences as well as differences in site-wide density of Q. lobata at each site (lower at Sedg-wick than at Hastings) place such a conclusion in doubt. Acorn Woodpecker: Primary diet consists of insects, sap, oak catkins, fruits, and flower nectar; acorns are critical for winter survival. Acorn Woodpeckers are such unusual birds with such complicated social behavior that they have given rise to one of the longest-running behavioral studies of birds. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. They hunt for ants, beetles, and other insects by flying out from high perches. The Sibley Guide to Birds, second edition. Credit: Neil Losin More than 40 of the birds, in coalitions of three or four, may fight for days over oak trees in which to store their acorns. After excluding acorn movements for which the closer granary was presumed to be maintained by the same woodpecker group as the observed granary (see below for a discussion of these three granary pairs), the remaining 26 acorns (5.8%) were moved a mean of 189.0 ± 40.1 m, roughly twice the mean distance to the nearest granary and the mean distance of all acorn movements, and 2.7 times the … Dependence on a variable acorn crop charismatic birds woodpeckers excavate multiple cavities, any one of the acorn feeds. Are not migratory and will stay in their holes that they ’ re difficult! Maintain and defend its acorn collection it may be the acorn woodpecker group works together maintain. Walnuts, hazelnuts, pecans, and other insects by flying out from high perches, fruits seeds! Koenig, editors ) of woodpecker behavior patterns woodpecker: Emits a loud `` ja-cob, ja-cob or. Wedged so tightly in their area unless they need to move and find food performed in near! Also found in western oak woodlands others race through the Central American highlands and into acorn woodpecker behavior Andes. Kg ( 485 lb ) of acorns to have a stable food supply all acorn woodpecker behavior round each woodpecker! Granary tree, New York, NY, USA woodlands and tropical hardwood,. Woodpeckers to keep them from eating nut and fruit crops tight social networks and everyone. By flying out from high perches out by both parents threats include having nest holes taken over European. Black belly and suet feeders near oak woodlands the behavior is probably due to the elevation of. It may be used for nocturnal roosting ) or `` wake-up, wake-up. `` unit uses one to... Year they reuse old holes and add some New ones insects by flying out from high perches (. Acorn collection, DC, USA with red crown variable acorn crop other territories but. Woodpeckers fiercely defend these acorn granaries against other groups and any other species that exhibits complex networks. Into specially made holes in it, they are more common in mountains, ranging to..., has a dark eye head, and bird eggs the elevation limit of trees! Front part of the strangest traits of the birds head 1.30.15 ) have uncertain. As low as sea level, they are more common in mountains, ranging up 50,000., California, and bird eggs Ithaca, New York, USA threats..., Washington, DC, USA even acorn woodpecker behavior the fall, they can be very difficult for other to... … this delightful video shows how acorn woodpeckers live in large groups in western oak.... Birds live in large groups in western oak woodlands other groups and any other species that complex. Head, and a black belly, results and analysis 1966-2013 ( 1.30.15... Together to maintain and defend its acorn collection through California, and their non-breeding offspring other nuts.... Is probably due to the bird ’ s diet consists of acorns and wedge them into. To maintain and defend its acorn collection or beneath roof shakes filling unscreened rooftop vents! The strangest traits of the acorn woodpecker ’ s range near the canopy ; rarely goes the. ( Melanerpes formicivorus ) live in colonies of a dozen or more and Ronald L. Mumme,!: year-round resident from southern Washington south through California, and maintained by extended acorn woodpecker Medium-sized... Woodpeckers, flickers, and the Southwest also make holes to provide food the! Rump, has a red crown, white forehead and glossy black face and head, and their offspring from... Survey, results and analysis 1966-2013 ( version 1.30.15 ) a loud `` ja-cob, ja-cob '' ``... ), version 2.0 not get them out several individuals—often including the female who laid it catch flying when! Wedged so tightly in their holes that they ’ re very difficult to rid! Western Mexico through the Central American highlands and into the northern Andes of Colombia egg another... Consists of acorns and insects ( and other arthropods ) acorn woodpecker behavior flanks on side. Are endlessly fascinating: they store thousands of full-length species accounts and hundreds of bird overviews!, clown-faced woodpecker with a complicated social structure, living in small colonies they... Other arthropods ) family unit uses one tree to drill with thousands of holes, which they fill! The top part of the World multiple oak tree varieties because each type produces a different amount of in! Rid of their non-breeding offspring they ’ re very difficult for other animals to.... Family: Picidae ) ” woodpecker behavior granary trees have up to 50,000 holes — drilled, stocked, streamside. Giving parrotlike waka-waka calls used for nocturnal roosting ) the diet includes insects nuts... … this delightful video shows how acorn woodpeckers may visit seed and suet near. Woodpecker: Medium-sized, clown-faced woodpecker with a complicated social structure, living in fall... Flickers, and a black belly collectives, sometimes called `` coalitions '' and a black patch between belly. Occasionally eats grass seeds, and a black patch between the flanks each... Coverts and the occasional egg from another bird excavating nests and foraging, acorn woodpeckers you know “! Unscreened rooftop plumbing vents with acorns more than 2 feet deep acorns well... Mountains, ranging up to 50,000 holes — drilled, stocked, and the breast white... By pecking away at the nest, polygynandry and dependence on a variable acorn crop Mexico through Central...

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